Buy-archy: Dynasties in American Politics

     As the oldest constitutionally-based republic in the world, has influenced the dynamic political adjustments to Europe in the last two-hundred years, and affected the enormous support and variety of democratic governments around the world, the United States of America perches grandly atop the assortment people's-consent governments, yet with voter participation barely enticing a third of the population to vote, America's esteemed republic seems to have grown decrepit with age.
     With the ratification of the Constitution in 1788 by all thirteen states, America began a great democratic experiment. The novelty of this approach drew the wonder and scorn of America's European trade partners and induced Alexis de Tocqueville of France to write Democracy in America (1835 and 1840) in which he analyzed the effectiveness of this type of political system. The Founding Fathers of America, five of whom became presidents under the Constitution, were a group of influential elites that largely sacrificed their own interests to establish a functional nation independent of Great Britain's imperial hand.
     Of the 56 signers of the Declaration of Independence, 39 signers of the Constitution, and the many who served on the Continental Congress, a legacy was born of rugged, frontier-minded people led by the New World's aristocratic, land-owning elite. An elite group that was versed both in European philosophy and exposed to the natural rigors of the uncivilized colonies. That arrangement fixed the foundation for the dreams of the millions who have called America their home over the last four-hundred years. Since the establishment of Jamestown and other British settlements, the United States as colonies and as states has placed wealthy families in governance over the working classes -  with some several exceptions of extraordinary men and circumstances. Aside from those exceptions, the American political and economic systems, often married and self-supporting, have been a reproducible relay of lineages taking residence in the seats of power. Not in ways that have outraged the voter public at large, instead encouraging furthering the democratization powers under Theodore Roosevelt, Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson's ideologically Progressive presidential terms.
     While the lineages of political power extend to all levels and branches of the American political system, the most visible and memorable powerhouse is the head of the Federal Executive branch, the President of the United States. The first recognized dynasty of American presidents was the Adams family. John Adams, one of the most predominant and vocal Founding Fathers, held strong ideas and the strength of character to withstand opposition. As the first vice president and second president, Adams began the precedent of peacefully switching hands of power from one man to another after the electoral process. Four presidents later, his son, John Quincy Adams, became the sixth president and the second in the Adam's dynastic claims to the presidential seat.
     A less notable and less influential dynasty over the course of America's destiny is the Harrison dynasty of the early to late nineteenth century. William Henry Harrison became of the ninth president, the last born a British-subject, and the first to die in office. He rose to power from his fame as a military officer and left a legacy in the War of 1812 that solidified America's self-identity. William's grandson, Benjamin Harrison, became the twenty-third president. While the political dynasty ended there, Benjamin's son Russell had a military career in the Spanish-American war that extended the recognized portion of the family's legacy through the nineteenth century.
     The Dutch, New York-based Roosevelts have made a permanent impact on their family, the Western Hemisphere, Europe, and the world. Succeeding the assassinated William McKinley in 1901 to become the twenty-sixth president, Theodore Roosevelt captured the support of the American public. Theodore Roosevelt broke up large corporations with trust-busting laws, invigorated the standards of the American army, expanded America's military and economic strength throughout the Western Hemisphere, initialized government reforms, established the legal preservation of many national parks that are still visited by millions today, and has endured lasting admiration for his courage, manliness, foolhardiness, and indomitable spirit. In modern American popular culture, Theodore Roosevelt matches the legendary tall tales of the Founding Fathers with feats of his ferocity and bravado from assassination attempts, distinguished military career, and dozens of legal precedents from re-invigorating the working class to federal government reforms. Despite these triumphs that set up America to claim the twentieth century as her own, Theodore's cousin, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, extended the immense influence and power of Theodore to take hold of the reigns of the world. The thirty-second president took his place as the United States endured the Great Depression. While his reforms are still denounced by America's political right, FDR led America through some of its most trying challenges since the Civil War. The Great Depression and a majority of World War II directed FDR's leadership against the antagonists of the American population. Franking's dying on the brink of America's victories in both European and Pacific theaters, the Roosevelt family's incredibly immense legacy on the world had only begun. The institutions established by both men still affect any residents of the United States and began the current ties of America's political alliances with European and Asian-Pacific powers.
     As the "land of the free" and home of the brave," America declares that all who take up the work can achieve their earthly goals, but for the dynastic families of American politics, hard work, money, a familiar name, and legal support extend normal labor into the most prominent chair of the American system of governance. Many families control local elections whether in small towns or giant cities like New York. Other families become fixtures of the political scene in Washington's federal government as exhibited by the success of the Kennedy family. The legacy of America's political families is as recognizable as the aristocratic and monarchical dynasties of Europe, yet seemingly inexplicably, the American dynasties gain their power not only through wealth and connections but through the support of the ballot box.
     As noted at the beginning, the modern system of democratic-republic representation in America is weak, with voter turnout low and inconsistent. Despite the dismal participation, contenders for the coveted seats of power are never in short supply, yet since 1981 with only the exception of the current occupier Barak Obama, a member of the Bush or Clinton family has been in one of the two most powerful positions in America.

     With the 2010 Supreme Court ruling on Citizens United concluding that corporations are people, unlimited funds are available to candidates for political campaigns. As the stagnation of middle-class American wages continues, the overall contribution strength of the American whole is less able to out-pay the corporations who are able to spend millions on lobbyists and billions during campaign season. Families striving to pay the bills and, perhaps, save for retirement while putting any child through any level of education find it difficult to keep track of the numerous political stances of the various candidates, never mind financially contributing on a negatively balanced budget. As the rich get rich and the American middle class wanes, laws favoring the rich disproportionately affect hundreds of millions of individuals.
     Americans recognize these problems, yet change does not come. Perhaps this is due to 90% re-election of state representatives to Congress despite 70+% disapproval of recent Congress performance. The general population is unable to become involved or contribute to the political system because of the slow financial stripping of their means. Despite an increasing number of Americans working more than fifty hours, and being forced to find non-full time positions to make ends meet, the average family income is stagnant. This is the core economic quandary of modern America. Adjusted for inflation, an average middle class family in 1970 would make nearly $95,000 in 2015 which contrasts the real national average of about $52,000. Even the richest state, Maryland, only has an average family income of $69,000, twenty-five thousand dollars below 1970 levels.
     The connection between political dynasties and American economic woes is correlated in recent decades by the repetitious re-election of Bush and Clinton candidates into the White House. One of the easiest ways to gain support or disdain from a large number of people instantly is to have a recognizable name. In a sea of people who have unheard of names with no known political credit to them, familiarity triumphs whether or not its authenticity and ideas are more widely supported. Because of the instantaneous recognition "Bush" and "Clinton" have on the American population, individuals with the "brand" are instantly more successful despite being little different from or potentially worse than the competition.
     The next year and a half will captivate the American media on the domestic and foreign problems of the country. The famous people who promise to fix those problems will likely fair better in the approval ratings. History has revealed the strengths and weaknesses of family dynasties. Part of their success is from their simplicity and consistency. Dynasties in democratic societies, notably America, have long been successful and even good for the overall trajectory of a nation's people, but as the money to fund the positions of power is concentrated into fewer hands, are the choices between two dynasties the best options or is it time to clear the board and reset some of the pieces?
     If corporations are people and money talks, the loudest voices will not be the American people.


 __    
Agatha Tyche

Devotion to Dust

     History is an odd study. It provides access to the past but only through filters and peep holes. History recounts the actions and effects of the dead which can be used a a guide to our decisions today though the outcomes are never certain. For many historians the study of past people and events is simply a passion that arouses curiosity and enthusiasm that cannot be directed anywhere except into books, into digs, and towards fellow enthusiasts. For many cultures, history is implicit in ordinary life from the buildings walked by to the social customs used to interact with family and foreigners. These places like Jerusalem, Rome, and Timbuktu possess a spirit that extends beyond time and memory and which holds firmly onto its residents for generations. The colonies of the Americas and South Pacific, notably the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand thoroughly destroyed and ignored native inhabitants of previously settled areas while simultaneously distancing colonial culture from the motherland. Specifically in the United States, popular culture believes history starts at the Revolutionary War in 1776 because nothing before that is worth remembering. That mindset is more dangerous than being in awe of the past because it places the present in full view outside of any context. Why do many nations see Americans as self-centered? Because to American citizens, the United States is the only nation that has ever mattered in history, and its greatness has never been eclipsed.
     History provides context by recognizing the triumphs and chastising the mistakes of the past while attempting to hold the present accountable and provide guidance to the future. Herodotus is credited as the Father of History since he is the first person acknowledged for recording historic events from first hand accounts in order to preserve knowledge. His work The History reveals insights into ancient Greece, Persia, and Egypt from monuments to travel routes to popular opinions. Although Herodotus was the first, he included bias and hear-say and did not document sources. He collected and compiled information to be kept safe for the future but did not include analysis or context. For centuries after Herodotus, records of events were kept throughout the Hellenistic world and collected, famously, in the library at Alexandria. The Romans continued the tradition of recording keeping, but the enthusiasm for analyzing records loss a great deal of its importance as the empire waned. The medieval period of Europe saw the near extinction of literacy and forced preservation to become the primary function of the learned.
     Napoleon Bonaparte's education reforms brought the modern methodology of a historian into play. On his conquests, he had geologists, botanists, zoologists, and a record keeper travel with his army to survey the land, biology, and events for future compilation. His forethought expanded the purpose of history from classical mythology and warfare to recording the present, analyzing the past, and changing a pastime into an academic pursuit.
     The current academic basis for historic inquiries varies for as many people as study history. Undeniably, studying history sates the unquenchable curiosity of mankind. History records the present for the future while revealing the past to the present lest the greatness of man's achievements are forgotten. While war, generals, and empires garner much attention, recent trends in the last few decades have focused on minorities, women, and civil rights as current social appetites dictate a new perspective. The study of history also reminds humanity of its failures and highlights pitfalls of the past. This can be a caution to world leaders and generals as well as a predictor for future imperial blunders and economic disasters.

     Perspective changes connotation. The components that dictate the changes of time can be broken down into three pivotal, interconnected cogs that drive the future onward. The smallest wheel spins rapidly and controls social movements and cultural adjustments to economic capabilities, wars, and civil relations. The medium wheel dictates political policies and laws that can control or react to social shifts. Though more powerful than the instant reaction of the masses, the political wheel spins more slowly. The third wheel moves languidly, nearly unnoticeably, and alters the climate and geography of a region which affects access to resources that influence political momentum, economic capabilities, military needs, and social attitudes.
     The small wheel that does all the spinning is the easiest for people to recognize and study, but it is controlled by larger, less obvious changes. Those larger forces are acknowledged but almost ignored. The climate of the ancient Nile allowed Egypt to flourish because of a consistent, easy water supply while the vast forests and Atlantic Coastline of Europe set the stage for the imperial expansion of the oceans similar to China's resource dominance in Asia.
     Part of the study of history is to answer questions; part of it is to find answers. History is a clock, and no matter which hand you focus on - time keeps ticking.


 __    
Agatha Tyche

Population Dynamics: Growth

     A debate at the forefront of the mind when looking over UN reports of disease, water usage, pollution, or news on the development of industrializing countries is the exponential increase in the human population which has caused concern in recent years due to the stress on natural resources and the toll that modern adaptations take both on the planet and on human interactions. The Industrial Revolution and its offspring are responsible for the enormous, exponential increase of Homo sapien sapien in the last two-hundred twenty-five years. As debated as the enlargement of humanity is, the format denouncing these changes has gone unchanged since the population explosion began..

     Thomas Malthus's 1798 essay, "An Essay on the Principle of Population, as it affects the Future Improvement of Society with remarks on the Speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and Other Writers," neatly summarizes the biological limitations of earth for the needs of an undefined number of people. Since the food supply tends to increase more slowly than human reproduction, it is left to the whims of nature on how to dispose of the excess individuals. This is achieved through war, famine, and disease. What Malthus did not predict was the great revolutions the food industry would undergo from 1798 to the modern day. Napoleon's France began the canning industry that allowed foods to be shipped incredible distances and stored for several months which allowed burgeoning populations to remain active through winter. Farming equipment and improved yields, especially in the grain baskets of Germany and America, provided the means to maintain the growth of Europe's populations.
     The last large-scale famine in Western countries was 1816, the Year Without a Summer. Because of spectacular innovations, trade, and preservation technology, exponential growth in Europe then the world has seen the human population double again and again within a single lifetime. As human numbers have increased, the means and minds to continue the increase in food supplies has expanded too.

 "Since you ask me what I wish, gentlemen, that is my answer. I don't make merry myself at Christmas ans I can't afford to make idle people merry. I help to support the establishments I have mentioned: they cost enough: and those who are badly off must go there."
"Many can't go there; an many would rather die."
"If they would rather die," Said Scrooge, "they had better do it, and decrease the surplus population."
- Charles Dickens, A Christmas Carol, 1843.

     Despite the worries of a continually enlarging population, growth trends have slowed from a global maximum of about a 20% increase in the 1960s to about five percent in the 2010s. The Green Revolution in Asia in the 1960s and 70s saved millions of lives and enabled several countries to feed their people without imports, notably China and India.
     As humans reproduce, our population continues to grow as it has for the past twenty decades. As that rate slows, Malthus could be proven correct as resources like oil and water strain trade relations and power structures. Resource management is a significant component of the fear mongering that has gone on since the beginning of the nineteenth century. Malthus predicted that Europe would descend into ravenous hordes, but the 1800s saw Europe dominate the world in every imaginable way - including population growth.
     It is not wrong to predict the problems of the future, but it is unhelpful to predict those problems and offer only despair and hopelessness as solutions. Charles Dickens exhibited the evidence of Britain's health and success in the 1843 short story "A Christmas Carol" where the streets of London have fresh fruits and edible delicacies available at modest prices even in the throes of winter. Even as Malthus's followers bemoaned the dismal possibilities of the future, Britain outproduced its needs. Therefore, let us look toward the years ahead with a eye for innovation and a heart full of hope instead of the useless dismality of the doomsday Malthusians.


 __    

Agatha Tyche

Incomprehensible Loss

     This will be an uncharacteristically personal post. The original topic changed multiple times and delayed this entry for several weeks. Recent contact with one of my history mentors elicited a strong, angry, depressed response. The final motivation that initiated the following sentiments was finalized by the proximity of ISIS to Palmyra, Syria and the vast, famed ruins south of that city. Palmyra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that has been a major city since before Roman occupation in the first century. With the threat to this beautifully preserved city, the world hopelessly holds its breath with ISIS's destructive intent clearly exhibited through Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. Even after deliberate destruction, the ruined ruins will be an impressive site and will continue to be a travel destination in the years to come.
     In short, history is fragile. Geological history is hard to unravel because of the sheer scope of time and size. Biological history requires careful genealogical histories of migration and breeding which can be confirmed through genotype mapping. Social history is the most sensitive and delicate to preserve and interpret. People's lives are powerful, but decipherable impacts can be nearly invisible given time and change.

     Egypt is famous because of the volume of historic artifacts that have remained four thousand years after the heights of power. The pyramids were the tallest man-made structures in the world for longer than people have lived in most cities. The Egyptians left a mark on the people they conquered and on the people that conquered them because of the total domination of the Nile Valley.
     Other cultures were able to build immense stone structures that have endured for millenia. The Roman Colosseum, the Great Wall of China, and the Mayan city Teotihuacan all testify to the strength of people at different times. Historians see these remains as historical landmarks and seek out their meaning, purpose, and history.
     The most selfish, antagonist people to live are not those that study and preserve materials of the past but those that intentionally destroy what can never be repaired, recovered, or rebuilt. ISIS destroys ancient artifacts because they are "idolatrous" to Islam's Allah. One of the biggest reasons to illegally keep world heritage artifacts in climate-controlled, guarded museum cases in Europe is because the countries those artifacts came from are the those with the most severe political turmoil and social unrest. Egypt is still experiencing political shifts years after the beginning of the Arab Spring. Greece's financial situation recently forced the withdraw of a decades-long attempt to reclaim the Elgin Marbles from the British Museum of Nature History. The Mediterranean region of the Middle East has suffered constant warfare, terrorism, and religious tension for the past seventy years with an unpredictable schedule of conflict and bombings. Regardless of the legality of European collections of ancient artifacts, they are carefully preserved and studied to reveal the past to the future.

"Not to know what happened before we were born is to remain perpetually a child. For what is the worth of human life if it is not woven into the life of our ancestors by the records of history." -Cicero

     History is a resource that cannot be manufactured. If fortunate, it can be restored, but through the renewal process, it loses part of its significance. The Middle East is a superlative in several categories from oil production to historic ruins to manufactured political boundaries by European empires. Importantly, the extreme, fringe Islamic views that have  gained a small minority of support because of its blame-centered, antagonistic beliefs have dramatically disturbed millions of peoples, billions of dollars, natural resources, trade routes, and the incomprehensible demolition of "blasphemous and idolatrous" antiquities.
     ISIS seeks to restore the greatness of past Islamic Caliphates that dominated the Near East, Northern Africa, and parts of Europe for centuries. Their zeal and enthusiasm should be commended as well as their demonstrated effectiveness. They should, however, seek to follow more of their ancestors' footsteps who respected their conquered people's lives and religions as well as the enormous significant context of the region while remaining true to their Islamic heritage.
     Perhaps ISIS will one day be contained or destroyed. Perhaps they will successfully establish a long-term Islamic government that extends beyond the modern boundaries of Middle Eastern nations. Regardless of their future, for the sake of mankind, may they stop the pointless obliteration that thousands of people have worked millenia to avoid.

 __    
Agatha Tyche

Domesticate the Vagabond

     People who achieve greatness and succeed in making their goals and dreams reality are often admired for their demonstrated determination while being scorned for their treatment of others and their disregard for social rules and laws. Obvious examples include the conquests of great generals like Cyrus, Alexander, Julius Ceasar, the Khans, and Saladin. These men took over large swathes of land and many peoples from a tiny center of power with innovative military techniques and tactics. The second most evident success stories of impassioned achievement are commercial. Rockefeller gradually absorbed all of the American oil industry from drilling to refining to selling and established an untouchable monopoly. John Pemberton, the inventor of Coca Cola, also achieved remarkable success of a simple product through excellent marketing. Henry Ford dominated the automotive industry, DuPont controlled engineering and chemistry, Carnegie consolidated steel and railroads, and modern innovators of the computer age like Bill Gates, Steve Jobs, and Mark Zucherberg continue in those traditions.
     What makes these individuals stand apart from the competition and achieve their goals despite opposition? Passion. Conviction. An internal belief and desire to do something purposeful with their lifelong dreams. Few people have dreams worth pursuing. Of the few that dream, fewer strive to achieve those ideas. Of the few that dream and strive, fewer succeed. That is why we remember them: their names and their deeds.

      In Dante's Inferno, Canto IV, " [In] the foremost circle that surrounds the abyss, there as it seemed to me from listening, were lamentations none, but only sighs, that tremble made the everlasting air. And this arose from sorrow without torment, which the crowds had, that many were and great, of infants and of women and of men." Taken slightly out of context, it is clear that a huge host of people suffered in the outermost circle of hell, Limbo, because they did not commit to anything during life. Because of their aimless life, they were punished to an aimless eternity.
     Most people live without focus or purpose. The poor are distracted by the needs of basic survival while the wealthy are distracted by worthless trinkets. If humanity is to overcome the challenges, fears, and antagonism that it suffers from now, we must collectively put aside the baggage of localized pettiness and place our efforts toward what we hope to accomplish.


 __    
Agatha Tyche

Tyche to Fortuna: Shifting Luck

Throughout her Grecian history, the goddess of luck, Tyche had adjusted well to the changing religious beliefs of the Greek and Hellenistic worlds. By the second century BC with a decline of the city-state in Greece and the formation of a large Greek-like culture throughout most of the known world, individualism philosophies undermined traditional religion but encouraged an increase in fate-altering religious beliefs. The focus on individualism aided the religious shift away from traditional Greecian religion since the Olympic gods chose cities, not people, to sponsor. Alternatively, mystery cults provided possibilities for individuals to interact with their chosen deity. By allowing people to interact personally and specifically to petition for gods’ assistance in problems, fate ceased its finality and became opened ended. Mystery cults added to traditional worship eventually weakening Tyche’s grasp on fate and undermining her power just as she had undermined the Olympic gods at the start of the Hellenistic Age.                                                       
The Classical Greek religious views began to change swiftly with the Macedonian invasion in the 330s BC as Fate gave way to the whims of shifting and unpredictable Chance. Fate (moira) characterizes unchangeable destiny while Chance personifies inexpiable inconsistencies in life. Fate went from being an unalterable future to being controlled by an unpredictable, blind deity that distributed rewards and punishments without cause. Comparing the Hellenistic view of Chance with Homer’s writings of traditional religion shows a stark contrast in the power of the Olympian gods. However, this shift occurred gradually with the earliest ideas of Fate expressed as “unswerving direction.” Over time, fate became god-administered because the outcome was not determined by the gods, merely the path of arrival. Aside from the gods, Tyche ruled a “separate but complementary sphere of influence.” Tyche’s popularity rose at the expense of the traditional Greek gods.                                
In addition to successfully competing with Greek gods, Tyche favorably interacted with other cultures’ religions such as Isis in the Selukidian and Ptolemaic kingdoms. With Fortune’s vast powers, Hellenistic writers called her a “tyrant over the gods” since she could dictate everyone's destiny. In efforts to break free from this tyrannical reign of Fate, mystery cults offered ways for people to unshackle from Tyche’s oppressive control. This movement introduced conflicts between providence and free will. A notable example from Polybius mentions the Romans, hopelessly outnumbered, overcoming a mighty Fortune-favored enemy through their own determination and courage. Resisting and changing this seemingly assigned fate encouraged the Hellenistic view that fate and destiny were malleable. 
However, merely resisting Fate did not alter destiny. Tyche still had a significant effects which caused people to seek out and petition her. A historic demonstration of the unpredictability of Fortune references the fall of Thebes. Polybius states, “the commander did everything a good general ought to do, and that Epaminondas got the better of his opponents, but was himself defeated by Fortune.” Another example of unfavorable Fortune is the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the Second Punic War. Although he had successfully defeated the Roman armies in Italy itself, through a sudden turn in events, Hannibal, through no fault of his own command, fell to Scipio.                                                                                     
Although the Greeks and Romans shared a similar god that affected fate, each culture held distinct beliefs. Throughout the Hellenistic kingdoms, the definition of Fortune ranged from blind chance to the goddess actively intervening on various occasions. While Greeks considered Tyche blind or malignant, Fortuna, the Roman goddess equivalent, expressed favorable chance and decisive judgment on wrong-doers.

         With Roman expansion into Hellenistic culture, Fortuna rose in popularity especially when Roman good fortune continued and brought ever-expanding prosperity. Cults worshipping Fortuna grew to prominence in cities and attracted large numbers of politicians, soldiers, and women who sought Fortuna’s favor. The Roman Senate and emperors used specific definitions of “fortune” to bring favor to their causes, most notably wars. Unlike traditional Greek views, Romans did not give Fate unlimited, universal power over other gods. For the Romans, Fortuna behaved only beneficiarily. In The Rise of the Roman Empire, Polybius examined the traditional Greek view that the whims of chance are unfavorable and had significant impacts on events while considering the Roman belief that Fortune is only favorable. The Greek and Roman contrast comes from the different origin histories. The Greeks had experienced foreign rule and detested it while the Romans had continually experienced nearly continuous, uninterrupted success. The Greeks’ cynicism is reflected in their alternative belief.
          One of the largest impacts Fortuna had on the Roman population affected the Stoics. Since heimarmen retained absolute control of fate, Stoics continued to accept the destiny prescribed, instead of attempting to petition gods to alter their fate. Although similar to Fortuna, hermarmen, like moira, could not be altered from its course. Man’s own control of a situation warrants chance instead of divine intervention, but it is useful to turn to a god for salvation if it is within his power or desire to do so. Extraordinary events should be viewed as “an infatuation sent from heaven” which does not happen often. Stoics resisted the view that fate can be altered, but neither did they continue the worship of traditional religions. 
          Roman beliefs of the fickleness of fortune aligned closely with Hellenistic beliefs. Fortune could and did randomly change circumstances and situations without warning. Polybius wrote The Rise of the Roman Empire to reflect on Fortune’s dealings with Rome and to teach how to bear one’s own fortune in life. Considering his evident respect for Fortuna’s hand in events, Polybius flippantly uses the term “fortune” by pointedly implying mere chance instead of a goddess’s intervention. Polybius explained that since man has no consistent way of foretelling what is to come, he must prepare for unexpected elements of life, especially in time of war. The belief that chance randomly determines everything pervaded the entire Hellenistic world and affected Roman philosophical and religious views as well. The Carthaginians and Hannibal knew that “[Fortune] sports with mankind as if her victims were little children.” Fortuna favors some men by giving unnaturally good fortune in every circumstance while others must overcome each obstacle before them through their own strength and ability. Polybius defends Scipio’s achievements as personal, praiseworthy accomplishments and not a merely gift from Fortuna.
          Tyche, the goddess of chance, luck, and fortune, originated around the time of Homer but developed into a goddess which set men’s unalterable destiny. Once Greeks recognized the power of unavoidable fate, Tyche overcame the Olympic gods. By the time Greek culture pervaded the world, Tyche neatly controlled the power of nearly every other god, unless favorable petitions to Fortuna permitted the evasion of destiny. Once other religions and mystery cults clipped Tyche’s control by allowing individuals to change their fate, she became merely a wrinkle to consider when studying major inconsistencies in world history. Roman religious similarities with Greeks allowed Tyche to gain a foothold in the new empire and expand in several philosophies such as Stoism. The goddess’s power can be interpreted from aiding an assassin’s attempt at a king’s life to which side a flipped coin will land on, but each interpretation of the extent of Tyche’s control forced inconsistencies into her doctrine. However, Tyche’s cultural and religious influences retain some strength even today with superstitious beliefs in lucky charms, numbers, and phrases. Although now far from the forefront of military considerations or the pinnacle of intervention, Lady Luck influenced religion and philosophy in Greece and Rome, the two foundational empires of the modern Western world.

Luck be with you.
 __    
Agatha Tyche

Tyche: Calculating the Odds

     Tyche, the Greek goddess of chance, neatly represents and condenses the religious views of the Hellenistic world by building off of traditional Greek beliefs and flexibly combining with the gods of eastern Mediterranean regions. As a goddess, Tyche causes sudden changes in human affairs, resulting from her fortuitous good luck or disastrous disfavor. Generally, Greeks viewed Tyche’s interferences from a negative standpoint since whatever seemed granted for nothing could just as easily be taken away.

     Tyche refers specifically to the Hellenistic goddess that interacted at all possible levels of chance from minute to momentous. Tyche is one of the most popular forms of Fate in Greek and Hellenistic texts.The earliest mention of a Tyche-like god in Greek literature are Homer’s references to Fates. Initially, Fate begins as an impersonal force called “moira” while a negative, malignant force called “daim” represented evil misfortunes. Homer implies that destiny is inevitable despite any actions taken to avoid it. For example Odysseus was fated to return to Ithaca despite the long delay. Fate will occur regardless of tradition, social hierarchy, and seniority since its power lies outside man’s control. Despite this foundation, Homer never reveres moira or daim as gods. Eventually, these impersonal forces shifted into the Fates of Classical Greek mythology and exerted control over the Olympian gods. 

     After Homer but before the Classical Greek era, the definitions of Fate and Chance changed, although the differences were nearly indistinguishable. Aristotle failed to define clearly the distinctions between Tyche’s influence and simple accidents. A further hindrance in clarification is the absence of lowercase letters in ancient Greek. Thus, the meaning of the term, either the goddess or ordinary chance, was derived purely from context and was easily miscommunicated. As the extent of Tyche’s control over events grew through the religious shift, eventually even the Olympian gods became restricted to the hands of Fate. The increase of Tyche’s power decreased the common people’s respect for the Olympian gods’ intervention and control. Against the philosophical rational that characterizes the Greeks, Fate is irrational. Slowly, Greeks concluded that since the Olympian gods themselves had no control over their own inevitable fate, interacting with deities unable to assist or defend is unbeneficial.

      Tyche is regularly depicted in statues, and temples dedicated to her cult arose in nearly every large city of the Hellenistic world. In her arm is either a cornucopia or the babe Plutus to show Tyche’s control over and power to distribute wealth. In her other hand is a rudder to show her authority over destiny since she ultimately determines the outcome. She steers men through chaotic waters without any predictability, rewarding without cause and punishing without reason. Her feet rest on a sphere of water showing her roots of chaos, turbidity, and unpredictability. Her face is wrapped in cloth to hide her eyes and emphasize the randomness of her generous blessings and cursings. Tyche’s popularity remained mainly in larger cities since rural populations stayed more traditional to the Olympic and local gods, but the general populous could and did credit every twist in daily life to the turning of Tyche’s will. These beliefs continued for centuries.

     

     Major historic events became notorious for unpredictability, and impossible military victories testified to Tyche’s reigning strength. Specific examples include both Athens’ and Thebes’ rise to supreme power over the Greeks without any apparent reason. Subsequently, Fortune collapsed these cities glories just as quickly as they had risen. Tyche lifted them high for a time simply to smash the once glorious empires in one of her swiftly changing moods. Fortune is fickle. Historic writers attributed entire books to the whims of Fortune.

     With the broadening of Fate’s power and elimination of the gods’ intervening role, Tyche overtook the throne of Olympic gods. While the traditional Greek gods are not neglected, with the institution of many ruler cults and the popularity of adopted local gods, the traditional religion of the ancient Greeks lessened. While new temples to the traditional Olympian gods were not being built, old temples dedicated to the Olympian gods remained in use. As one historian noted, “Most English cathedrals pre-date the Reformation, but afterwards the predominate religious culture was still Christian.” This religious shift intensifies as Greeks move eastward during the Hellenistic Age, and the goddess of fate comes to embody every circumstance of significance. Tyche is praised for everything from the blessing of a child’s birth and celebration of an individual to the interactions of kingdoms as a whole.

     As the Greeks grew to accept a power that their lot in life was inconsequential of their actions, they accepted that the fall of their empires was not because of a failing of themselves but rather a necessary tide in the whim of Tyche's will. That could have caused them to cycle back to the acceptance of inescapable, unavoidable fate as exhibited in Homer's time but for the adoption of Tyche into other culture's that the Greeks influenced. The world is a large place full of potential, but regardless of the luck of each man's situation, it is for him to choose his course and beat back the fickle wishes of one seductive Lady of Fortune.

Luck be with you.
 __    
Agatha Tyche