Egyptian life revolved around the Nile, the base of its economic prosperity and understanding of the world. Coinciding with this river’s pervasive presence, religion dominated all aspects of life. Though distinct, Egypt, a land of fertility, celebrated the life that its river provided. In contrast to this, the desert encouraged a determined preparation for the afterlife. These dichotomous views are fundamental to how Egyptians interacted politically and religiously over three millennia.
The origin of a united Egypt dates back beyond the memory of later Egyptians who themselves were not entirely sure of how their civilization was established. Mythical history went back to the “Time of Re” when the gods ruled before traveling to the Underworld for eternal youth, leaving the world to man. Despite its shrouded origin, the unification of the Egyptian Old Kingdom is now roughly understood since the uncovering of the Great Hierakonpolis Palette. This discovery attributes Narmer as the first king of the first dynasty who worshiped a falcon god symbolized by nobility and strength. The king’s association with a falcon god eventually morphed into the Horus cult associated with the divine right of rule. Egyptian religion played an absolute role in the lives of Egyptians from the foundation of the Old Kingdom (3000 BC) through the collapse of the pharaonic system and into the Christian era. Part of Egypt’s religious success came from the isolation from other cultural hubs which allowed firm traditions to be established unquestioningly for over one thousand years. Culture and religion pervaded life and landmarks. The ancient Greek, Herodotus, who explored Egypt in the early fifth century BC, marveled at the devoutness and ingenuity of the Egyptian people: “In their reverence for the gods, they are excessive, more than any others in the world.”
Egypt’s Religion
The plethora of gods did little to inhibit devoutness. Indeed, local deities strengthened the case of major state gods by lending power and attributes to enhance the status of the greater god.
For instance, several of the local divinities were identified with the sun-god. Now the king in one aspect was regarded as the son of the sun-god; he was therefore regarded as the son of the gods identified with the sun-god . . . The king was also the high-priest of the sun-god [Re], and he became high-priest of the local divinities by the same process as that by which he came to be regarded as their son. The local high-priesthoods also . . . devolved upon the Pharaoh as the supreme head of the centralized government of Egypt, in whom were united all the political and religious functions that once belonged to the local chiefs’. As their son and high-priest [Pharaoh], or his [vizier], would naturally have performed the same rite on behalf of the local divinities as in the first instance on behalf of the sun-god.1
The Nile seems to have lent support for the creation of numerous gods since each town had distinct deities, but overlap in worship allowed cohesive fusion.
The annual inundation forced the regulation of the agricultural period and through agricultural regularity the entirety of life, including festivals, taxes, and worship. Just as the river structured annual events, religion ordered the way of life. Herodotus writes that only certain animals could be hunted because gods held them sacred; sacrifices had strict adherence with violations resulting in death. Ma’at, the system of governance that brought balance to the universe, required the equality of man as servants to the gods. As an integral part in the reproduction of mankind and to keep this universal balance, women were nearly socially equal with men.2
Foundational to the Egyptian civilization, agriculture’s consistence from the Nile allowed Egypt to remain strong. Agricultural and economic success translated into religious influence.
Foreigners readily assimilated into Egyptian culture since a people as thoroughly blessed as the Egyptians must satisfy their gods. One of the ways the gods were satisfied was celebration. Festivals revolved around the planting cycles which linked religion, agriculture, and society. All classes were involved in public worship, and the pharaoh orchestrated the main attraction of several events to emphasize his position as a god among men.
Pharaoh was the center of life itself. He embodied the gods on earth, and all land, animals, and possessions belonged to him. Every social function centered around pharaoh’s divinity, and as the king’s powers waned through the millennium, control over the masses required contriving alternative religious explanations to justify pharaoh’s reign. While fluctuation and instability occurred, once Egypt unified religious ideology changed little over the next three thousand years as the importance and necessity of the king, Ma’at, and dualism, prevailed. Pyramids and temple complexes symbolized pharaoh’s greatness on earth and provided an eternal resting place for his body. The design of pyramids and obelisks, sloped sides meeting at a point, had religious significance to the Egyptians. This pyramidal shape mirrored the Ben-Ben, “spring of all life,” the primordial mud from which the gods emerged at creation. While pharaoh represented the gods, he remained man until death and sought to behave towards the gods like an obedient and respectful son. The combination of godhood, symbolism of creation, and the temple complexes that took an entire lifetime to build encouraged cult worship of deceased kings that often went unabated until the temple’s ruinous status turned worshippers elsewhere.
As defender of Ma’at, pharaoh justified his claims of tax and worship through political protection internally by the righteous enforcement of the law but also externally from foreign invaders. While a large portion of the Egyptian army consisted of mercenaries working for influential Egyptian gold, the pharaoh owned all people just as he owned all land. Native Egyptians feared dying outside the homeland because improper burial eliminated the chance of immortality in the afterlife which further encouraged a mercenary army. Delegation of militaristic power necessitated the authority of local governors to acquire forces to protect immediate borders against nomads, though full-scale war operated under the king himself. To further emphasize the superiority of their gods to any others, Egyptians set a day to engage in battle and would delay if the enemy was not ready. Ensuring that both sides had a fair chance allowed the gods to determine the victor.
The delegation of power turned upon its source after the twelfth dynasty’s succession crisis, and officials used their united power to begin appointing kings. This shift in power structure resulted in the collapse of the Middle Kingdom around 1750 BC. In this tumultuous time officials and wealthy merchants elevated their status, though no mobility is known for the lower classes. Not until the New Kingdom in 1550 BC were lower classes permitted to obtain security in the afterlife. This transformation occurred largely because of the cheapness of native soldiers; eternal security negated previous objections. At this time high priests served the dual role of army leaders to carry the blessings of the gods with them into battle.
The most obvious evidence for religion’s voraciousness is the temples. Temples began dominating the Egyptian landscape with the establishment of kings and originally surrounded Old Kingdom pyramids to encourage worship to the dedicated pharaoh. Huge tracks of land were allotted to chief gods as early as the fifth dynasty, and by the New Kingdom, temples controlled over ten percent of Egyptian land and largely functioned independently of pharaoh. Small towns rose up for the construction and successive worship of state-endorsed temples though workers also retained dedication to personal gods. In the new capital city of Amarna, dedicated to the sole god of Egypt under Akhenaten, workers built personal alters to outlawed gods within their homes with such marked regularity that several dozen still exist. Pharaoh functioned as the high priest to every god, but physical limitations forced delegation of most of his roles to god-specific localized high priests.
The combination of delegation of power and land distribution resulted in the first collapse of the Egyptian pharaonic system in 2160 BC.3 Hereditary nomarch positions coupled with tax exemption of temple lands diminished royal influence and funds. Every Old Kingdom ruler increased the number of public officials and temple land grants which resulted in the first collapse of centralized government after over eight hundred years.
Despite the eventual downfall of the Old Kingdom, pharaohs remained foundational to the functioning of the religious system because they represented the pinnacle of mankind as an intermediary figure between the gods and man. One of the great successes of Egyptian religion was the complacency of the priests at large because of their self-sufficiency. This allowed the religion to be flexible and cater to people at a local level. Strong regional connections constrained a god’s influence from abroad while retaining utter control in Egypt for three thousand years. Although pharaonic power had waned greatly after its establishment in the Old Kingdom, it remained considerable since it derived its power from the gods. Since the Egyptian religion remained almost perfectly intact while native pharaohs ruled, subjugation of the masses required little effort, exceptions resulting in the fall of the kingdom.
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Agatha Tyche
The annual inundation forced the regulation of the agricultural period and through agricultural regularity the entirety of life, including festivals, taxes, and worship. Just as the river structured annual events, religion ordered the way of life. Herodotus writes that only certain animals could be hunted because gods held them sacred; sacrifices had strict adherence with violations resulting in death. Ma’at, the system of governance that brought balance to the universe, required the equality of man as servants to the gods. As an integral part in the reproduction of mankind and to keep this universal balance, women were nearly socially equal with men.2
Foundational to the Egyptian civilization, agriculture’s consistence from the Nile allowed Egypt to remain strong. Agricultural and economic success translated into religious influence.
Foreigners readily assimilated into Egyptian culture since a people as thoroughly blessed as the Egyptians must satisfy their gods. One of the ways the gods were satisfied was celebration. Festivals revolved around the planting cycles which linked religion, agriculture, and society. All classes were involved in public worship, and the pharaoh orchestrated the main attraction of several events to emphasize his position as a god among men.
Pharaoh was the center of life itself. He embodied the gods on earth, and all land, animals, and possessions belonged to him. Every social function centered around pharaoh’s divinity, and as the king’s powers waned through the millennium, control over the masses required contriving alternative religious explanations to justify pharaoh’s reign. While fluctuation and instability occurred, once Egypt unified religious ideology changed little over the next three thousand years as the importance and necessity of the king, Ma’at, and dualism, prevailed. Pyramids and temple complexes symbolized pharaoh’s greatness on earth and provided an eternal resting place for his body. The design of pyramids and obelisks, sloped sides meeting at a point, had religious significance to the Egyptians. This pyramidal shape mirrored the Ben-Ben, “spring of all life,” the primordial mud from which the gods emerged at creation. While pharaoh represented the gods, he remained man until death and sought to behave towards the gods like an obedient and respectful son. The combination of godhood, symbolism of creation, and the temple complexes that took an entire lifetime to build encouraged cult worship of deceased kings that often went unabated until the temple’s ruinous status turned worshippers elsewhere.
Social Organization
Society’s organization by caste system according to skill sets and political appointment allowed pharaoh to retain sole dominance. Gradually, however, pharaoh released his powers by delegation, and larger portions of society grew powerful, especially in later periods as evidenced by the expansion of religious afterlife and the independence of temple complexes in later periods. Governors of nomes, state-like districts, acted as mini-kings that oversaw the collection of taxes, construction of public works, and enforcement of the law though their authority came from the king. Religious proclamations encouraged worship of pharaoh and recognition of his divine status. As translated from annals of the Old Kingdom, a stele commanded, “Honor the crown of Lower Egypt, worship the crown of Upper Egypt, exalt him who wears the double crown. Do this; it will be beneficial to your persons and you will derive benefit from it forever more.”As defender of Ma’at, pharaoh justified his claims of tax and worship through political protection internally by the righteous enforcement of the law but also externally from foreign invaders. While a large portion of the Egyptian army consisted of mercenaries working for influential Egyptian gold, the pharaoh owned all people just as he owned all land. Native Egyptians feared dying outside the homeland because improper burial eliminated the chance of immortality in the afterlife which further encouraged a mercenary army. Delegation of militaristic power necessitated the authority of local governors to acquire forces to protect immediate borders against nomads, though full-scale war operated under the king himself. To further emphasize the superiority of their gods to any others, Egyptians set a day to engage in battle and would delay if the enemy was not ready. Ensuring that both sides had a fair chance allowed the gods to determine the victor.
The delegation of power turned upon its source after the twelfth dynasty’s succession crisis, and officials used their united power to begin appointing kings. This shift in power structure resulted in the collapse of the Middle Kingdom around 1750 BC. In this tumultuous time officials and wealthy merchants elevated their status, though no mobility is known for the lower classes. Not until the New Kingdom in 1550 BC were lower classes permitted to obtain security in the afterlife. This transformation occurred largely because of the cheapness of native soldiers; eternal security negated previous objections. At this time high priests served the dual role of army leaders to carry the blessings of the gods with them into battle.
The most obvious evidence for religion’s voraciousness is the temples. Temples began dominating the Egyptian landscape with the establishment of kings and originally surrounded Old Kingdom pyramids to encourage worship to the dedicated pharaoh. Huge tracks of land were allotted to chief gods as early as the fifth dynasty, and by the New Kingdom, temples controlled over ten percent of Egyptian land and largely functioned independently of pharaoh. Small towns rose up for the construction and successive worship of state-endorsed temples though workers also retained dedication to personal gods. In the new capital city of Amarna, dedicated to the sole god of Egypt under Akhenaten, workers built personal alters to outlawed gods within their homes with such marked regularity that several dozen still exist. Pharaoh functioned as the high priest to every god, but physical limitations forced delegation of most of his roles to god-specific localized high priests.
Alterations to Social Order
Since pharaoh owned all of Egypt, the population served corvée in the winter, a tax paid through manual labor on public works. Negation of an off season, which most ancient cultures enormously boosted the economy, especially in the Old and New Kingdoms with large temple complexes under construction.The combination of delegation of power and land distribution resulted in the first collapse of the Egyptian pharaonic system in 2160 BC.3 Hereditary nomarch positions coupled with tax exemption of temple lands diminished royal influence and funds. Every Old Kingdom ruler increased the number of public officials and temple land grants which resulted in the first collapse of centralized government after over eight hundred years.
Despite the eventual downfall of the Old Kingdom, pharaohs remained foundational to the functioning of the religious system because they represented the pinnacle of mankind as an intermediary figure between the gods and man. One of the great successes of Egyptian religion was the complacency of the priests at large because of their self-sufficiency. This allowed the religion to be flexible and cater to people at a local level. Strong regional connections constrained a god’s influence from abroad while retaining utter control in Egypt for three thousand years. Although pharaonic power had waned greatly after its establishment in the Old Kingdom, it remained considerable since it derived its power from the gods. Since the Egyptian religion remained almost perfectly intact while native pharaohs ruled, subjugation of the masses required little effort, exceptions resulting in the fall of the kingdom.
1
Aylward M. Blackman, “The House of the Morning,” The Journal
of Egyptian Archaeology 5, no. 3 (1918), 151.
2
In Egyptian sociology Ma’at is the order of the universe
that balances out the chaos and emptiness of Nun. Maintenance of
Ma’at was essential for life to continue. The gods,
maintainers of order, tasked pharaoh, as son of the gods, with
enforcing order, justice, and truth in the world to counteract the
chaos, emptiness, and destruction of Nun, the dualist
counterpoint of Ma’at.
3
Beginning in the Old Kingdom, pharaohs distributed land and titles
to gain and retain loyalty from regional governors. As this
tradition continued over the centuries, the pharaohs deprived
themselves of sufficient power to rule definitely. This power
structure remained until upset by other circumstances, usually
prolonged famines and wars. Each major kingdom in Egyptian history
repeats this cycle though intermediate times and external forces
vary.
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Agatha Tyche
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